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As exemplified in Alma's counsel to his sons, a frequently invoked covenant in the Book of Mormon is God's promise of prosperity for those in the New World who keep his commandments. Courtesy of Intellectual Reserve, Inc.

In Alma 36–42, Alma the Younger teaches his sons from the perspective of an understanding father, one who was no stranger to rebelling against God, disregarding the commandments, and experiencing the absolute joy that comes after heartfelt repentance. In this essay I explore the brief words spoken to Shiblon in Alma 38, consisting of only fifteen verses but brimming with salient, pointed counsel to his son that has ready applications to readers today. Alma emphasizes a particular covenant to Helaman and Shiblon (and possibly Corianton) that I refer to as the “Core Covenant.”[1] I will define and describe the Core Covenant in broad terms throughout the text of the Book of Mormon with a special focus on its significance in Alma’s teaching to his sons. I investigate the Hebraic concept of “covenant” as found in the Old Testament as well as the expression “cut off” that appear so commonly in the Bible and in the context of the Core Covenant in the Book of Mormon. While grounded in biblical conceptions of divine justice (compare Leviticus 22:3; 26:3–14; Numbers 19:20), the Book of Mormon is unique in the specific language of the Core Covenant and its direct linkage of this covenant to the New World. Finally, I examine Alma’s other personal teachings to Shiblon that contain overtures to the underlying theme of Alma 38—the Core Covenant.

Chapters 36–42 of the book of Alma contain Alma’s instructions to his three sons, Helaman, Shiblon, and Corianton, after their initial missionary work.[2] Evidently Shiblon was adversely influenced in some ways by the apostate Zoramites among whom he labored. And while Shiblon did not succumb to temptations and the ideology of the Zoramites the way his brother Corianton obviously did, he nevertheless had some personal challenges during his proselytization efforts. Yet overall, he was faithful, diligent, and “steady” in keeping the commandments (see Alma 38:2–3) and showed courage and patience despite confinement, torture, and abuse at the hands of the Zoramites. Later in his life, he remained resolute in his faith, even ascending to the status of Nephite record keeper after his brother Helaman (see 63:1).

One particularly striking similarity in Alma’s counsel to his sons Shiblon and Helamanis the recitation of a covenant that had been revealed to both Lehi and Nephi. The Lord stated to Lehi: “Inasmuch as ye shall keep my commandments ye shall prosper[3] in the land; but inasmuch as ye will not keep my commandments ye shall be cut off from my presence” (2 Nephi 1:20; emphasis added). In brief, keeping the commandments will bring prosperity while disobedience will result in consequences. I refer to this particular phraseology as the “Core Covenant” in the context of the Book of Mormon since it is the central agreement between God and all those who would inherit the promised land in the New World. Iterations of the Core Covenant fill the pages of the text and, more importantly, continually occupy the minds of prophets throughout Nephite history.

The Origin and Significance of the Core Covenant

In biblical studies, the “Deuteronomic Principle (of retribution)” straightforwardly avers that righteousness brings blessings and wickedness brings cursings (compare Deuteronomy 4:40; 5:32–33; 6:1–2, 17–18; 28:1; 30:15–20). Book of Mormon authors were certainly aware of the biblical passages linking obedience to blessings and the converse to sinning, yet God immediately gave both great civilizations, Jaredite and Lehite, their own version of this principle in the form of the Core Covenant. The first mention of this covenant goes back to the earliest times in the Book of Mormon, to the brother of Jared at the very beginning of his journey to the New World: “And he had sworn in his wrath unto the brother of Jared, that whoso should possess this land of promise, from that time henceforth and forever, should serve him, the true and only God, or they should be swept off when the fulness of his wrath should come upon them” (Ether 2:8). The language is clear that the covenant applies to “whoso[ever]” would possess the land of the New World. Moroni then comments on this verse and declares this covenant an “everlasting decree” (v. 10)—and indeed it was, one that would define the relationship between God and both ancient cultures, for better or for worse.

Some sixteen hundred years later, God taught Nephi of the same covenant associated with those in the New World that he had previously taught to the brother of Jared: “And inasmuch as ye shall keep my commandments, ye shall prosper, and shall be led to a land of promise; yea, even a land which I have prepared for you; yea, a land which is choice above all other lands” (1 Nephi 2:20). Since Lehi’s party was still in the Old World at that time, specifically in the valley of Lemuel, the focus of this prophecy was on the future acquisition of a promised land (as it was with the brother of Jared). The implicit linking of the covenant directly to the land of the New World and its inhabitants is significant, as I will discuss below. In addition to the blessings of living righteously, Nephi learns the penalty associated with breaking the Core Covenant: “And inasmuch as thy brethren shall rebel against thee, they shall be cut off from the presence of the Lord” (v. 21).

It seems clear that Ether 2:8 refers to the same Core Covenant found in 1 Nephi 2:20–21 when we compare their phraseology, both from what the Lord told the brother of Jared (Ether 2:8) and Moroni’s commentary directly following (vv. 9–10):

In light of the thematic and verbal similarity in both passages, we can confidently conclude that the Core Covenant was given to both the Jaredites and the Lehites, although admittedly the covenantal structure is more easily discerned in the Lehite version. When descendants of Lehi refer back to the Core Covenant, however, they understand it to be a covenant God made with their “fathers” (e.g., Jarom 1:9), meaning Lehi and Nephi, not the Jaredites.

That reception of the Core Covenant had an immediate influence on Nephi is readily apparent when he was confronted with the startling command to take Laban’s life. Note that the text states Nephi was “constrained by the Spirit” to kill him (1 Nephi 4:10; emphasis added), which to a modern audience may sound paradoxical because constrain is commonly associated with the sometimes-synonymous term restrain. In 1828, however, the primary meaning of constrain according to Webster’s dictionary was “to compel or force; to urge with irresistible power, or with a power sufficient to produce the effect” (compare Job 32:18; Acts 28:19; 2 Corinthians 5:14 in the KJV).[4] After Nephi is irresistibly urged by the Spirit three times without obeying, it is then that the words of the Core Covenant come rushing into his mind: “I remembered the words of the Lord which he spake unto me in the wilderness, saying that: Inasmuch as thy seed shall keep my commandments, they shall prosper in the land of promise” (1 Nephi 4:14). Then he acts. The desire to show himself worthy of God’s assurance to protect him and reward his obedience finally compels him. And in so doing, Nephi reveals his absolute confidence in God’s covenant—a faith that would have a lasting impact on his descendants’ views of the same.

Nephi’s second experience with the Core Covenant occurred in Bountiful after the Lord commanded him to construct a ship for the ocean voyage to the New World. The Lord informed Nephi: “And I will also be your light in the wilderness; and I will prepare the way before you, if it so be that ye shall keep my commandments; wherefore, inasmuch as ye shall keep my commandments ye shall be led towards the promised land; and ye shall know that it is by me that ye are led” (1 Nephi 17:13). The effect on Nephi of having the Lord yet again confirm the essence of the Core Covenant is evidenced by his reaction: “Wherefore, I, Nephi, did strive to keep the commandments of the Lord, and I did exhort my brethren to faithfulness and diligence” (v. 15).

Years after arriving in the New World, Lehi, who was near death, sat in counsel with his family and taught them the importance of the Core Covenant going forward: “Wherefore, I, Lehi, have obtained a promise, that inasmuch as those whom the Lord God shall bring out of the land of Jerusalem shall keep his commandments, they shall prosper upon the face of this land; and they shall be kept from all other nations, that they may possess this land unto themselves. And if it so be that they shall keep his commandments they shall be blessed upon the face of this land, and there shall be none to molest them, nor to take away the land of their inheritance; and they shall dwell safely forever” (2 Nephi 1:9). Lehi then repeats the Lord’s exact wording of the Core Covenant: “And he hath said that: Inasmuch as ye shall keep my commandments ye shall prosper in the land; but inasmuch as ye will not keep my commandments ye shall be cut off from my presence” (v. 20).[5] When precisely Lehi received this covenant from the Lord is not certain, but since Nephi learned of it while in the Old World, we might assume the same timing for Lehi.

Lehi and Nephi were taught the Core Covenant through direct revelation from the Lord. Note that later authors in the Book of Mormon regularly attribute the teaching of the Core Covenant to “our fathers,” plural, referring most certainly to both Lehi and Nephi (see Jarom 1:9; Omni 1:6; Mosiah 1:7; Alma 34:29). That the Core Covenant originated with God himself, however, is something consistently noted by Book of Mormon authors, such as “Wherefore, the word of the Lord was fulfilled which he spake unto me” (2 Nephi 5:20, emphasis added; see also 3 Nephi 5:22; Alma 9:13; 50:19–20; Jarom 1:9; Omni 1:6). Nephite writers are keen to point out that God fulfills his part of the covenant in every case, just as he promised, both in terms of blessing righteous actions and punishing disobedience. As Brant Gardner notes, these covenantal episodes are a major theme of Mormon’s creative work: “There are times when it is explicit, but even when not explicit, the selection of the stories underscores the desire to demonstrate that principle—which ultimately is used to explain the Nephite demise.”[6] Mormon prominently holds see up righteous Nephites as an example of how God blesses those who adhere to the Core Covenant (see 16:21; Helaman 4:15).

The Consequences of Covenant Breaking

The second half of the Core Covenant explains the negative results that come from disobedience: “But inasmuch as ye will not keep my commandments ye shall be cut off from my presence” (2 Nephi 1:20). The verb “cut off” (Heb. ��â�����ٳ�) in this covenantal context is common in the Old Testament. The separation is often said to be “from his people” (Genesis 17:14), “from the earth” (Exodus 9:15), “from the congregation of Israel” (12:19), or “from Israel” (Numbers 19:13). In the Book of Mormon, the specific language “cut off from my presence” occurs only once in the King James Version of the Bible, in Leviticus 22:3.[7] That exact phrase appears three times in the Book of Mormon (2 Nephi 1:20; 4:4; Helaman 12:21), yet the expression of being cut off from the “presence” of the Lord appears throughout the text (see 2 Nephi 9:6; 2 Nephi 5:20; Alma 36:30; 50:20; Helaman 14:18; Ether 10:11).

From other usages in the Book of Mormon, the meaning of the phrase “cut off from the Lord’s presence” is that of spiritual death.[8] In Alma 42:9, Alma taught that the fall of Adam “brought upon all mankind a spiritual death,” which the text then clarifies meant “they were cut off from the presence of the Lord” (compare Helaman 14:16). Alma further described how the unrepentant in the next life would be “miserable, being cut off from the presence of the Lord” were it not for the plan of redemption (Alma 42:11). There seems to be a dual sense of “cut off from the presence of the Lord” in the Book of Mormon, that of a temporary separation from the blessings of the Lord in this life (i.e., “cursed,” as in Alma 9:14) and an eternal consequence of losing one’s ultimate salvation in the world to come (as in Helaman 12:25).

The notion of being “cut off” had special significance in covenant making in ancient Israel. In Old Testament Hebrew, the idiom for “to make a covenant” is literally “to cut a covenant” (��â�����ٳ� berît, as in Genesis 15:18). The term cut (��â�����ٳ�) also means “destroy,”[9] which explains the well-attested coupling of both terms in the Bible (e.g., Isaiah 10:7). Cutting refers directly to a sacrificial animal[10] whose body is cut and separated between the two parties[11] in the covenant or treaty.[12] Exactly the same phraseology appears in Phoenician as krt ‘lt (“to cut the oaths”), in Aramaic as gzr ‘dy' (“to cut oaths”), and in Greek as horkia tamnein (“to cut the oaths”).[13]

As Jared Parker has shown,[14] the formulaic language in what I term the Core Covenant fits into what are known as “simile curses”[15] in the ancient Near East. The structure of a simile curse is that it contains an explicit or implicit simile introduced by like or as (or, in the case of the Book of Mormon, inasmuch as), intimating that the person entering the covenant will suffer the same fate as the sacrificial animal (i.e., cut or cut off) if the covenant is broken. A similar structure appears in an Aramaic inscription of a treaty with King Barga‘yah of HTK and King Matti‘el of Arpad around 750 BC: “[As] this calf is cut up, Matti‘el and his nobles shall be cut up” (Sefire I, A, 40).[16] The punishment for breaking the covenant was for the offenders to be “cut up” themselves.

Note that in the Book of Mormon the simile curse usually beings with “inasmuch as ye shall not keep my commandments” in the protasis (clause containing the condition), followed by the result: “ye shall be cut off from my presence” (2 Nephi 1:20; emphasis added) in the apodosis (clause containing the conclusion). The idea of being “cut off” from the presence of the Lord or from the land is a play on the Hebrew ��â�����ٳ�, “to cut,” the word also used in the expression “to make (a covenant).” In this case Nephi (and likely Alma) was a Hebrew speaker, and the wordplay alluding to cutting a covenant and the consequence of breaking that covenant (i.e., being “cut off” from God’s presence) would have been obvious to him, as it certainly was to biblical authors. For, according to one scholar, there is a clear “connection between the ritual of cutting a covenant and the punishment fit for its violation.”[17]

Alma’s Teaching of the Core Covenant

To Helaman, Alma mentions the Core Covenant in his opening words in verse 1 of Alma 36: “My son, give ear to my words; for I swear unto you, that inasmuch as ye shall keep the commandments of God ye shall prosper in the land.” Then, employing the rhetorical device of inclusio (or enveloping parallelism), Alma bookends his discourse by closing with the same admonition at the end in verse 30: “But behold, my son, this is not all; for ye ought to know as I do know, that inasmuch as ye shall keep the commandments of God ye shall prosper in the land; and ye ought to know also, that inasmuch as ye will not keep the commandments of God ye shall be cut off from his presence. Now this is according to his word.”

Alma similarly begins his speech to Shiblon by referencing the Core Covenant: “My son, give ear to my words, for I say unto you, even as I said unto Helaman, that inasmuch as ye shall keep the commandments of God ye shall prosper in the land; and inasmuch as ye will not keep the commandments of God ye shall be cut off from his presence” (Alma 38:1). Alma is in good company here, following an established pattern of Book of Mormon prophets who give words of counsel to their posterity that include the Core Covenant, beginning with Lehi. Lehi uses the same formulaic phraseology later drawn on by Alma: “Behold, my sons, and my daughters, who are the sons and the daughters of my firstborn, I would that ye should give ear unto my words” (2 Nephi 4:3; compare Alma to Shiblon: “My son, give ear to my words,” Alma 38:1). Significantly, Lehi then immediately rehearses the Core Covenant, just as Alma will do with Helaman and Shiblon: “For the Lord God hath said that: Inasmuch as ye shall keep my commandments ye shall prosper in the land; and inasmuch as ye will not keep my commandments ye shall be cut off from my presence” (2 Nephi 4:4). Furthermore, we can see another father-prophet in the Book of Mormon, Benjamin, utilizing a similar pedagogic strategy and formulation: “And now, my sons, . . . I would that ye should keep the commandments of God, that ye may prosper in the land according to the promises which the Lord made unto our fathers” (Mosiah 1:7). In each case the essential teaching of these prominent Nephite leaders to their immediate descendants is an evocation followed by a recitation of the Core Covenant—a paternal plea to keep God’s commandments.

Shiblon’s Stoning and Mistreatment

After stressing the Core Covenant, Alma commends Shiblon for patiently bearing his captivity and torture in the form of stoning while serving among the Zoramites (see Alma 38:3–5). In the Old Testament, stoning (saqal in Hebrew) was a common[18] yet horrific[19] form of judicial execution for adultery (see Deuteronomy 22:21), necromancy (see Leviticus 20:27), blasphemy (see 24:16), murder (see v. 17), idolatry (see Deuteronomy 17:2–5), Sabbath violation (see Numbers 15:35–36), and other offenses. Its purpose was overtly the death of the accused; for example, with adultery: “Ye shall stone them with stones that they die” (Deuteronomy 22:24; compare Leviticus 20:2, 27; Numbers 15:35). However, in Shiblon’s case, he survives the stoning, possibly suggesting this mention of “stoning” has a different connotation. In fact, the Book of Mormon refers to stones being used in a variety of ways, such as in warfare with slings (Alma 2:12; 3:5; 17:36). It is also possible that “stoning” in the Book of Mormon had a broader meaning including torture that did not necessarily lead to death, perhaps akin to the Mesoamerican practice of handheld stones,[20] stone cudgels, and other related objects used in hand-to-hand combat[21] or as “impromptu weapon[s]”[22] (compare 57:14). Note that when Ammon and some of his brethren went to the land of Nephi to teach the Lamanites they were “cast out, and mocked, and spit upon, and smote upon [their] cheeks” and “stoned, and taken and bound with strong cords, and cast into prison,” plainly indicating stoning was part of their mistreatment before being imprisoned, not a method of intended death (26:29).[23]

I suggest Shiblon suffered pelting with stones as a form of punishment without the intention to kill him, such as in the ancient Greco-Roman world, where pummeling with stones was sometimes used as a way of showing dissatisfaction or anger, even in some cases coming from audience members at a performance.[24] Shiblon suffered from his stoning episode, and Alma extols his courage for bearing it and other abuses “with patience” but then gently reminds Shiblon, lest he fail to recognize it, “And now thou knowest that the Lord did deliver thee” (Alma 38:4; emphasis added). True to Alma’s overarching theme—that is, the Core Covenant—he expertly rephrases the covenantal language to include the notion of divine deliverance as a consequence of righteous actions. Therefore, in verse 5, Alma restates the syntax and theme of the Core Covenant but adapts it to Shiblon’s experience of heavenly deliverance: “And now my son, Shiblon, I would that ye should remember, that as much as ye shall put your trust in God even so much ye shall be delivered out of your trials, and your troubles, and your afflictions, and ye shall be lifted up at the last day.” Note the parallel language: in the protasis, “Inasmuch as ye shall keep my commandments” (2 Nephi 1:20)—“As much as ye shall put your trust in God” (Alma 38:5); and in the apodosis, “Ye shall prosper in the land” (2 Nephi 1:20)—“Ye shall be delivered out of your trials” (Alma 38:5). Alma makes an apparent allusion to the style and content of the Core Covenant to convince Shiblon that trusting in God and following his commandments leads to blessings, namely, his deliverance from Zoramite mistreatment.

It should come as no surprise that Alma would emphasize deliverance in his counsel to Shiblon. Deliverance was a theme Alma knew firsthand. Indeed, the very language of Alma’s own personal deliverance as recounted to Helaman is repeated in Alma’s words to Shiblon:

Thus, Alma punctuates his message by immediately relating it to his own experience of being delivered by God (see Alma 38:6–9). He tells Shiblon that he knows these things because God delivered him from three days and nights of enduring “the most bitter pain and anguish of soul,” and it was only when he cried to Jesus that he “did find peace to [his] soul” through repentance (v. 8). The takeaway? Not keeping God’s commandments invites painful consequences; keeping them is the way to find peace and prosperity.

Conforming to the Core Covenant

The last half of Alma 38 consists of Alma’s specific advice and warnings to Shiblon on how to conform to the Core Covenant. Each statement is personal and relevant to Shiblon’s own challenges, yet all are eminently applicable to us in our day also. As stated earlier, it is important to note that like his brother Corianton, Shiblon seems to have returned from his missionary labors among the Zoramites having been influenced to some degree by their theology and ideology.

Alma presents part of his message to Shiblon in poetic form, employing synonymous repetition as well as contrast. In verse 9 he restates, “That ye may learn wisdom, that ye may learn of me,” which is thematically contrasted in verse 10: “Ye have begun to teach the word even so I would that ye should continue to teach” (emphasis added). What should he learn? First and foremost is that salvation comes “only in and through Christ” (v. 9), a concept foreign to Zoramite doctrine[25] and therefore powerfully addressed by Amulek (see Alma 34) in his preaching to them. Alma also urges Shiblon to be “diligent and temperate in all things” (38:10) but not “lifted up unto pride” and boasting (v. 11). The wealthy Zoramites were the very epitome of prideful behavior and boasting (e.g., “O God, we thank thee; and we also thank thee that thou hast elected us,” and “we thank thee, O God, that we are a chosen and a holy people,” 31:17–18). Accordingly, Mormon states that Alma “saw that their hearts were lifted up unto great boasting, in their pride” (v. 25). Could Shiblon have been affected or unduly influenced by this brand of pride and boasting? One indication is that Alma expressly cautions Shiblon against praying in the prideful manner of the Zoramites:

Do not pray as the Zoramites do, for ye have seen that they pray to be heard of men, and to be praised for their wisdom. Do not say: O God, I thank thee that we are better than our brethren; but rather say: O Lord, forgive my unworthiness, and remember my brethren in mercy—yea, acknowledge your unworthiness before God at all times. (Alma 38:13–14)

Alma enjoins him further to “be filled with love” (v. 12)—remembering that a distinct lack of compassion was a hallmark of the wealthy Zoramites (see 35:3–6).

Alma also counsels Shiblon to “use boldness, but not overbearance; and also see that ye bridle all your passions” (Alma 38:12). Alma calls for a bridling of passions, a balance of strength and humility—two characteristics often not thought to be readily compatible. In the New Testament, James similarly praises anyone who can “bridle the whole body” (χαλιναγωγῆσαι καὶ ὅλον τὸσῶμα, James 3:2). Deriving from the term χαλινός (chalinos), an animal bridle, the compound χαλιναγωγέω means to “bridle, hold in check, restrain.”[26] It is the only use of this figurative language involving a bridle in the New Testament, companion to only a handful of metaphorical uses in the Old Testament, such as Psalm 39:1, “I will keep my mouth with a bridle, while the wicked is before me.” Alma’s language that Shiblon should bridle all his passions is unique in scripture. In his Sermon on the Mount, however, Christ uses a term with overtures to bridling that may shed some comparative light on Alma’s intended meaning. In Matthew 5:5 we read that Christ taught, “Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth.” The term meek in Greek is πραΰς (praus). This word was used to describe wild horses gathered and trained by the Greek military. Once they became fully submissive to the will of the rider but were still strong and fearless in battle, they were declared “praus”—in other words, exhibiting “bridled strength.”[27] Hence Alma’s injunction: “Use boldness [strength], but not overbearance [bridled]” (Alma 38:12).

The Fruits of Keeping Covenants

Alma begins his speech to Shiblon by reciting the Core Covenant. For the rest of the chapter, he explains ways, tailored to his son’s apparent personal struggles, that Shiblon could further align his behaviors to ensure that the promised blessings of the covenant would be his. Alma’s final words to Shiblon were “And may the Lord bless your soul, and receive you at the last day into his kingdom, to sit down in peace. Now go, my son, and teach the word unto this people. Be sober. My son, farewell” (Alma 38:15). In his life, Alma had received an assurance from God that he would be saved, a likely reference to his calling and election being made sure (compare 2 Peter 1:10–11). He wrote, “And I know that he will raise me up at the last day, to dwell with him in glory” (Alma 36:28). Alma’s final wish was that his son Shiblon likewise be granted the privilege “to sit down in peace” (38:15) with God in the last day.

Conclusion

About 73 BC, Alma gave three stirring discourses to his sons, by far the shortest of which was to Shiblon. Yet despite its brevity, Alma 38 contains a powerful set of teachings about proper gospel living. Alma framed his speech to a son he hopes will return to missionary work: “I would that ye should continue to teach” (v. 10); “Now go, my son, and teach the word unto this people” (v. 15); “Use boldness, but not overbearance” (v. 12)—likely referring to teaching as a missionary. Indeed, Shiblon later returned to proselyting together with his brothers and his father in the city of Melek soon after Alma’s counsel (see 43:1–2). In addition to specific areas for which Alma believed Shiblon needed guidance, the message of Alma 38 is that a belief in the saving ability of Christ coupled with strict obedience is the only way to ensure the blessings of eternal life. As I have argued here, Alma stresses the Core Covenant—appearing in the very first verse in both discourses—to Helaman and Shiblon[28] to provide an overarching theme to the particulars discussed thereafter.

The Core Covenant as first given to the brother of Jared, Lehi, and Nephi established the binding contract between the remnants of the house of Israel in the New World and the God of Israel. Nephi carefully explained to Laman and Lemuel that although they had been “broken off” from the house of Israel, they remain eternally part of it: “Are we not a branch of the house of Israel?” (1 Nephi 15:12; emphasis added). Jacob similarly consoled his people: “For we are not cast off; nevertheless, we have been driven out of the land of our inheritance; but we have been led to a better land” (2 Nephi 10:20). Driven out, but not forgotten. The Lord assured Nephi He would “remember the isles of the sea; yea, and all the people who are of the house of Israel” (1 Nephi 19:16)—comforting words to an isolated group of Nephites who saw themselves as being “upon an isle of the sea” (2 Nephi 10:20).[29] The message? Physical separation from Israel was traumatic, but God had given thee Nephites a new promise, the Core Covenant, with direct links to the New World itself whereby they could enjoy his protection and aid and still be entitled to all the blessings of Israel. Alma embraced the Core Covenant as a means of urging his sons to live up to the covenantal expectations God had set for those in the New World.

Notes

[1] I refer to this covenant as being “core” since it is the foundation on which God’s covenant relationship is built with respect to the New World, as described by the Book of Mormon. Previous studies have sometimes labeled this the “Lehitic covenant,” which I do not use since it implies the covenant was first given to Lehi; however, it dates back to early Jaredite times when the Lord declared this covenant to the brother of Jared (see Ether 2:8), so a more general term allows for discussions of the covenant in both Jaredite and Nephite contexts as well as ancient Israel more broadly. Lehitic, therefore, is too narrow a term, except perhaps if specifically referring to that group. For more on the use of Lehitic, see Joseph M. Spencer, An Other Testament: On Typology, 2nd ed. (Provo, UT: Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, Brigham Young University, 2016), 84, 88–90.

[2] For a more thorough treatment of these chapters, see Give Ear to My Words: Text and Context of Alma 36–42. The 48th Annual Brigham Young University Sidney B. Sperry Symposium, ed. Kerry Hull, Nick Frederick, and Hank Smith (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2019).

[3] On the meaning of prosper in this context, see Douglas Bassett, “Prosper, prosperity,” in Book of Mormon Reference Companion, ed. Dennis L. Largey (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2003), 664.

[4] Noah Webster, An American Dictionary of the English Language (New York: S. Converse, 1828), s.v. “constrain.” Available at http://webstersdictionary1828.com.

[5] Roughly five hundred years later, Alma, citing Lehi with nearly the precise language, asks the people of Ammonihah, “Behold, do ye not remember the words which he [the Lord] spake unto Lehi, saying that: Inasmuch as ye shall keep my commandments, ye shall prosper in the land? And again it is said that: Inasmuch as ye will not keep my commandments ye shall be cut off from the presence of the Lord” (Alma 9:13). The fact that Alma quotes Lehi, not Nephi, suggests that this covenant was indeed first given to Lehi despite the fact that the first recorded mention of it is associated with Nephi (see 1 Nephi 1:20). It is possible that the record of Lehi’s receiving this covenant was in his writings, which were part of the lost 116 pages of the Book of Mormon.

[6] Brant A. Gardner, personal communication, May 28, 2020.

[7] Similar wording is also found in Isaiah 48:19 (“his name should not have been cut off nor destroyed from before me,” KJV), but the Hebrew contains the same verb (“cut off,” ��â�����ٳ�) and prepositional phrase (“from before me/from my presence”).

[8] For further discussion of the relationship between the Fall and the phrase “cut off,” see Matthew L. Bowen, “Cut Off from the Face and Presence: Alma’s Use of Hebraistic Idioms to Teach the Fall,” Religious Educator 21, no. 2 (2020): 157–69.

[9] While the notions of covenant making and destruction seem incongruous, a similar semantic overlap appears in the Hebrew ����ê����, which can mean “devotion” (e.g., Numbers 18:14) in addition to “destroy” (e.g., Zechariah 14:11). The underlying meaning of separation is part of both terms—that is, to separate that which is holy from the profane (devotion), and to separate or ban something (destroy). Brian M. Britt, “Curses in the Hebrew Bible,” Bible Odyssey, https://www.bibleodyssey.org/people/related-articles/curses-in-the-hebrew-bible/.

[10] Donald J. Wiseman notes of the ancient Near East, “In all types of treaties the conclusion of the agreement was marked by oath-taking ceremonies and sacrifice.” “The Vassal-Treaties of Esarhaddon,” Iraq 20, no. 1 (1958): 28.

[11] See, e.g., Jeremiah 34:8–22.

[12] See Patrick D. Miller, “Sin and Judgment in Jeremiah 34:17–19,” Journal of Biblical Literature 103, no. 4 (1984): 612.

[13] Moshe Weinfeld, “Covenant Terminology in the Ancient Near East and Its Influence on the West,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 93, no. 2 (1973): 196.

[14] Jared T. Parker, “Cutting Covenants,” in The Gospel of Jesus Christ in the Old Testament: The 38th Annual BYU Sidney B. Sperry Symposium, ed. D. Kelly Ogden, Jared W. Ludlow, and Kerry Muhlestein (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, 2009).

[15] It is important to remember that the Book of Mormon culture, prior to 3 Nephi, is Mosaic. Therefore, these concepts of sacrifice, covenant, and simile curses would be more present in their understanding than they are for modern readers.

[16] Michael James Hauan, “The Background and Meaning of Amos 5:17B.” Harvard Theological Review 79, no. 4 (1986): 337–48. See Gerhard F. Hasel, “The Meaning of the Animal Rite in Genesis 15,” JSOT 19 (1981): 61–78.

[17] Haun, “Background and Meaning of Amos 5:17B,” 342.

[18] Stoning, however, was rare in other cultures such as ancient Greece, where it was a form of mob violence or communal vengeance, an aspect it shared with ancient Israelite culture. See Vincent J. Rosivach, “Execution by Stoning in Athens,” Classical Antiquity 6, no. 2 (1987): 232, 245. See also Shelly Matthews, Perfect Martyr: The Stoning of Stephen and the Construction of Christian Identity (New York: Oxford University, 2012), 77; and Carol J. Dempsey, “Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament: Volume 13,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 67, no. 4 (2005): 325.

[19] Flavius Josephus, “Antiquities of the Jews, Book VIII,” Early Jewish Writings (1960), 14.2:290, who wrote about the stoning of the righteous man Onias, called it “barbarity.”

[20] Indeed, the Maya hieroglyph for “strike, hit” (read �Ჹ�ٳ�’) depicts a hand holding a stone. See Marc Zender, “Glyphs for ‘Handspan’ and ‘Strike’ in Classic Maya Ballgame Texts,” PARI Journal 4, no. 4 (2004): 1–9.

[21] See Heather S. Orr, “Stone Balls and Masked Men: Ballgame as Combat Ritual, Dainzú, Oaxaca,” Ancient America (Washington, DC: Center for Ancient American Studies, 2003): 5:73–103. See also Zach Zorich, “Fighting with Jaguars, Bleeding for Rain,” Archaeology 61, no. 6 (2008): 51.

[22] Karl Taube and Marc Zender, “American Gladiators: Ritual Boxing in Ancient Mesoamerica,” in Blood and Beauty: Organized Violence in the Art and Archaeology of Mesoamerica and Central America, ed. Heather S. Orr and Rez Koontz (Los Angeles: UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, 2009), 197.

[23] Yet in other cases, such as with Zenock (see Alma 33:15–17) and the brother of Nephi₃ (see 3 Nephi 7:19), stoning is expressly said to have led to death.

[24] The ancient Greek statesman and orator Demosthenes noted that the orator Aeschines was driven “from the stage with hisses and cat-calls, and came near to pelting him with stones when he took the stage” during a theatrical performance (On the False Assembly 19.337). See Rosivach, “Execution by Stoning in Athens,” 232n2. See also Arthur Stanley Pease, “Notes on Stoning among the Greeks and Romans,” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 38 (1907): 10.

[25] In their prayer on the Rameumptom, the Zoramites overtly pronounced, “Thou hast made it known unto us that there shall be no Christ” (Alma 31:16).

[26] Walter Bauer, William F. Arndt, F. Wilbur Gingrich, and Frederick W. Danker, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 2nd ed. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1957), 874.

[27] Paul Louis Metzger, Beatitudes, Not Platitudes: Jesus’ Invitation to the Good Life (Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2018), 35.

[28] Somewhat surprisingly, Alma does not repeat the Core Covenant directly to his son Corianton, the very one who had fallen most seriously into sin. Yet textual evidence suggests that Alma₂ may have covered similar ground in his in-depth discussion with Corianton of the Fall and its effects on humanity and therefore did not mention the covenant overtly. Specifically, Alma₂ taught Corianton that by disobedience “our first parents were cut off both temporally and spiritually from the presence of the Lord”—language highly reminiscent of the Core Covenant (Alma 42:7).

[29] In the Old Testament the expression “isle of the sea” (Hebrew אִיֵּ֥יהַיָּֽם) does not refer solely to an island surrounded by water, but to any land whose main access was by the sea. The Hebrew אִי (ʼî��), signifying “island,” can also refer to “maritime land, whether the sea coast of a continent, or an island” or to “a habitable spot (as desirable); dry land, a coast.” James Strong, Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995), s.v. H339. See Francis Brown, The New Brown-Driver-Briggs-Gesenius Hebrew and English Lexicon: With an Appendix Containing the Biblical Aramaic (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1979), 33.